Government and politics Hyderabad State

1 government , politics

1.1 government
1.2 political movements

1.2.1 1938 satyagraha


1.3 communal violence

1.3.1 prior operation
1.3.2 during , after operation

government , politics
government

on 22 february 1937 cover story time called osman ali khan, asif jah vii wealthiest man in world

wilfred cantwell smith states hyderabad area political , social structure medieval muslim rule had been preserved more or less intact modern times. @ head of social order nizam, owned 5 million acres (10% of land area) of state, earning him rs. 25 million year. rs. 5 million granted him state treasury. reputed wealthiest man in world. supported aristocracy of 1,100 feudal lords owned further 30% of state s land, 4 million tenant farmers. state owned 50% or more of capital in major enterprises, allowing nizam earn further profits , control affairs. of these 100% muslim.

next in social structure administrative , official class, comprising 1,500 officials, chiefly muslim. number of them recruited outside state. lower level government employees predominantly muslim. effectively, muslims of hyderabad represented upper caste of social structure. dominated state s extensive hindu population, resented dominance.

all power vested in nizam. ruled of executive council or cabinet, established in 1893, members free appoint , dismiss. prime minister muslim, outside state. there assembly, role advisory. more half members appointed nizam , rest elected limited franchise. there representatives of hindus, parsis, christians , depressed classes in assembly. influence limited due small numbers.

the state government had large number of outsiders (called non-mulkis) — 46,800 of them in 1933, including members of nizam s executive council. hindus , muslims united in protesting against practice robbed locals of government employment. movement fizzled out after hindu members raised issue of responsible government , of no interest muslim members , led resignation.

political movements

up 1920, there no political organisation of kind in hyderabad. in year, following british pressure, nizam issued firman appointing special officer investigate constitutional reforms. welcomed enthusiastically section of populace, formed hyderabad state reforms association. however, nizam , special officer ignored demands consultation. meanwhile, nizam banned khilafat movement in state political meetings , entry of political outsiders. nevertheless, political activity did take place , witnessed co-operation between hindus , muslims. abolition of sultanate in turkey , gandhi s suspension of non-co-operation movement in british india ended period of co-operation.

an organisation called andhra jana sangham (later renamed andhra mahasabha) formed in november 1921, , focused on educating masses of telangana in political awareness. leading members such madapati hanumantha rao, burgula ramakrishna rao , m. narsing rao, activities included urging merchants resist offering freebies government officials , encouraging labourers resist system of begar (free labour requested @ behest of state). alarmed activities, nizam passed powerful gagging order in 1929, requiring public meetings obtain prior permission. organisation persisted mobilising on social issues such protection of ryots, women s rights, abolition of devadasi system , purdah, uplifting of dalits etc. turned politics again in 1937, passing resolution calling responsible government. afterwards, split along moderate–extremist lines. andhra mahasabha s move towards politics inspired similar movements in marathwada , karnataka in 1937, giving rise maharashtra parishad , karnataka parishad respectively.

the arya samaj, pan-indian hindu reformist movement engaged in forceful religious conversion programme, established in state in 1890s, first in bhir , bidar districts. 1923, opened branch in hyderabad city. mass conversion programme in 1924 gave rise tensions, , first clashes occurred between hindus , muslims. arya samaj allied hindu mahasabha, pan-indian hindu communal organisation, had branches in state. anti-muslim sentiments represented 2 organisations particularly strong in marathwada.

in 1927, first muslim political organisation, majlis-e-ittehadul muslimeen (council unity of muslims, ittehad short) formed. political activity meagre during initial decade other stating objectives of uniting muslims , expressing loyalty ruler. however, functioned watchdog of muslim interests , defended privileged position of muslims in government , administration.

1938 satyagraha

1937 watershed year in indian independence movement. government of india act, 1935 introduced major constitutional reforms, loose federal structure india , provincial autonomy. in provincial elections of february 1937, indian national congress emerged clear majority in provinces of british india , formed provincial governments.

on other hand, there no move towards constitutional reforms in hyderabad state despite initial announcement in 1920. andhra mahasabha passed resolution in favour of responsible government , parallel organisations of maharastrha parishad , karnataka parishad formed in respective regions. nizam appointed fresh constitutional reforms committee in september 1937. however, gagging orders of 1920s remained curtailing freedom of press , restrictions on public speeches , meetings. in response, hyderabad people s convention created, working committee of 23 leading hindus , 5 muslims. convention ratified report, submitted constitutional reforms committee in january 1938. however, 4 of 5 muslim members of working committee refused sign report, reducing potential impact.

in february 1938, indian national congress passed haripura resolution declaring princely states integral part of india, , stood same political, social , economic freedom in states in rest of india. encouraged this, standing committee of people s convention proposed form hyderabad state congress , enthusiastic drive enroll members begun. july 1938, committee claimed have enrolled 1200 primary members , declared elections held office-bearers. called upon both hindus , muslims of state shed mutual distrust , join cause of responsible government under aegis of ashaf jahi dynasty. nizam responded passing new public safety act on 6 september 1938, 3 days before scheduled elections, , issued order hyderabad state congress deemed unlawful.

negotiations nizam s government lift ban ended in failure. hyderabad issue discussed in newspapers in british india. p. m. bapat, leader of indian national congress pune, declared launch satyagraha (civil disobedience movement) in hyderbad starting 1 november. arya samaj , hindu mahasabha planned launch satyagrahas on matter of hindu civil rights. hindu communal pot had been boiling since 1938 when arya samaj member in osmanabad district said have been murdered refusing convert islam. in april, there communal riot in hyderabad between hindus , muslims, raised allegation of oppression of hindus in press in british india. arya samaj leaders hoped capitalise on these tensions. perhaps in bid not outdone, activists of hyderabad state congress formed committee of action , initiated satyagraha on 24 october 1938. members of organisation fielded, openly declared belong hyderabad state congress , courted arrest. arya samaj-hindu mahasabha combine launched own satyagraha on same day.

the indian national congress refused satyagraha of state congress. haripura resolution had in fact been compromise between moderates , radicals. gandhi had been wary of direct involvement in states lest agitations degenerate violence. congress high command keen on firmer collaboration between hindus , muslims, state congress lacked. padmaja naidu wrote lengthy report gandhi castigated state congress lacking unity , cohesion , being communal in [her] sense of word . on 24 december, state congress suspended agitation after 300 activists had courted arrest. these activists remained in jail till 1946.

the arya samaj-hindu mahasabha combine continued agitation , intensified in march 1949. however, response state s hindus lacklustre. of 8,000 activists courted arrest june, 20% estimated state s residents; rest mobilised british india. surrounding british indian provinces of bombay , central provinces and, limited extent, madras, governed indian national congress, facilitated mobilisation, town such ahmednagar, sholapur, vijayawada, pusad , manmad used staging posts. increasingly strident anti-hyderabad propaganda continued in british india. july–august, tensions had eased. hindu mahasabha dispatched shankaracharya of jyotirmath on peace mission, testified there no religious persecution of hindus in state. nizam government set religious affairs committee , announced constitutional reforms 20 july. subsequently, hindu mahasabha suspended campaign on 30 july , arya samaj on 8 august. imprisoned activists of 2 organisations released.

communal violence
prior operation

in 1936–37 indian elections, muslim league under muhammad ali jinnah had sought harness muslim aspirations, , had won adherence of mim leader nawab bahadur yar jung, campaigned islamic state centred on nizam sultan dismissing claims democracy. arya samaj, hindu revivalist movement, had been demanding greater access power hindu majority since late 1930s, , curbed nizam in 1938. hyderabad state congress joined forces arya samaj hindu mahasabha in state.

noorani regards mim under nawab bahadur yar jung explicitly committed safeguarding rights of religious , linguistic minorities. however, changed ascent of qasim razvi after nawab s death in 1944.

even india , hyderabad negotiated, of sub-continent had been thrown chaos result of communal hindu-muslim riots pending imminent partition of india. fearing hindu civil uprising in own kingdom, nizam allowed razvi set voluntary militia of muslims called razakars . razakars – numbered 200,000 @ height of conflict – swore uphold islamic domination in hyderabad , deccan plateau in face of growing public opinion amongst majority hindu population favouring accession of hyderabad indian union.

according account mohammed hyder, civil servant in osmanabad district, variety of armed militant groups, including razakars , deendars , ethnic militias of pathans , arabs claimed defending islamic faith , made claims on land. beginning of 1948 razakars had extended activities hyderabad city towns , rural areas, murdering hindus, abducting women, pillaging houses , fields, , looting non-muslim property in widespread reign of terror. women became victims of rape , kidnapping razakars. thousands went jail , braved cruelties perpetuated oppressive administration. due activities of razakars, thousands of hindus had flee state , take shelter in various camps”. precise numbers not known, 40,000 refugees have been received central provinces. led terrorizing of hindu community, of whom went across border independent india , organized raids nizam s territory, further escalated violence. many of these raiders controlled congress leadership in india , had links extremist religious elements in hindutva fold. in all, more 150 villages (of 70 in indian territory outside hyderabad state) pushed violence.

hyder mediated efforts minimize influence of razakars. razvi, while receptive, vetoed option of disarming them, saying hyderabad state army ineffective, razakars means of self-defence available. end of august 1948, full blown invasion india imminent.

nehru reluctant invade, fearing military response pakistan. india unaware pakistan had no plans use arms in hyderabad, unlike kashmir had admitted troops present. time magazine pointed out if india invaded hyderabad, razakars massacre hindus, lead retaliatory massacres of muslims across india.

during , after operation

there reports of looting, mass murder , rape of muslims in reprisals hyderabadi hindus , indian army soldiers. jawaharlal nehru appointed mixed-faith committee led pundit sundar lal investigate situation. findings of report (pundit sundar lal committee report) not made public until 2013 when accessed nehru memorial museum , library in new delhi. report available online.

the committee concluded while muslim villagers disarmed indian army, hindus left weapons. violence carried out hindu residents, army indifferent, , participating in atrocities. committee stated large-scale violence against muslims occurred in marathwada , telangana areas. concluded: @ number of places members of armed forces brought out muslim adult males villages , towns , massacred them in cold blood. committee credited military officers conduct stated soldiers acted out of bigotry. official conservative estimate 27,000 40,000 died during , after police action. other scholars have put figure @ 200,000, or higher. among muslims estimates higher , smith says military government s private low estimates [of muslim casualties] @ least ten times number of murders razakers officially accused. in william dalrymple s words scale of killing horrific. although nehru played down violence, privately alarmed @ scale of anti-muslim violence.

patel reacted angrily report , disowned conclusions. stated terms of reference flawed because covered part during , after operation. cast aspersions on motives , standing of committee. these objections regarded noorani disingenuous because commission official one, , critical of razakars well.

according mohammed hyder, tragic consequences of indian operation largely preventable. faulted indian army neither restoring local administration, nor setting own military administration. result, anarchy led several thousand thugs , camps set across border, filling vacuum. stated thousands of families broken up, children separated parents , wives, husbands. women , girls hunted down , raped. committee report mentions mass rape of muslim women indian troops.

according sundarayya, hindus in villages rescued thousands of muslim families union army s campaign of rape , murder.