History Ergotism

painting matthias grünewald of patient suffering advanced ergotism approximately 1512–16 ce

epidemics of disease identified throughout history, though references in classical writings inconclusive. rye, main vector (route) transmitting ergotism, not grown around mediterranean. when fuchs in 1834 separated references ergotism erysipelas , other afflictions, found earliest reference ergotism in annales xantenses year 857: great plague of swollen blisters consumed people loathsome rot, limbs loosened , fell off before death.

in middle ages, gangrenous poisoning known holy fire or saint anthony s fire , named after monks of order of st. anthony particularly successful @ treating ailment. according snorri sturluson, in heimskringla, king magnus, son of king harald sigurtharson, half-brother of saint king olaf haraldsson, died ergotism shortly after battle of hastings. 12th century chronicler geoffroy du breuil of vigeois recorded mysterious outbreaks in limousin region of france, gangrenous form of ergotism associated local saint martial. likewise, outbreak in paris ca. 1129 reported cured relics of saint genevieve, miracle commemorated in november 26 feast of burning ones .

the blight, named cockspur due appearance of infected grains, identified , named denis dodart, reported relation between ergotized rye , bread poisoning in letter french royal academy of sciences in 1676 (john ray mentioned ergot first time in english next year). ergotism , in modern sense, first recorded in 1853.

notable epidemics of ergotism occurred 19th century. fewer outbreaks have occurred since due rye being monitored in developed countries. severe outbreak of akin ergot poisoning occurred, however, in french village of pont-saint-esprit in 1951, resulting in 5 deaths. outbreak, , diagnostic confusion surrounding it, vividly described in john grant fuller s book day of st anthony s fire.

there evidence of ergot poisoning serving ritual purpose in ritual killing of bog bodies.

when milled, ergot reduced red powder, obvious in lighter grasses easy miss in dark rye flour. in less wealthy countries, ergotism still occurs; outbreak in ethiopia occurred in mid-2001 contaminated barley. whenever there combination of moist weather, cool temperatures, delayed harvest in lowland crops , rye consumption, outbreak possible.

poisonings due consumption of seeds treated mercury compounds misidentified ergotism. simon cotton of chemistry department of uppingham school, uk said there have been numerous cases of mass-poisoning due consumption of mercury-treated seeds.

salem witchcraft accusations

the convulsive symptoms ergot-tainted rye may have been source of accusations of bewitchment spurred salem witch trials. medical explanation theory of bewitchment first propounded linnda r. caporael in 1976 in article in science. in article, caporael argues convulsive symptoms, such crawling sensations in skin, tingling in fingers, vertigo, tinnitus aurium, headaches, disturbances in sensation, hallucination, painful muscular contractions, vomiting, , diarrhea, psychological symptoms, such mania, melancholia, psychosis, , delirium, symptoms reported in salem witchcraft records. caporael states there abundance of rye in region climate conditions support tainting of rye. in 1982, historian mary matossian raised caporael’s theory in article in american scientist in argued symptoms of “bewitchment” resemble ones exhibited in afflicted ergot poisoning.

the hypothesis ergotism explain cases of bewitchment has been subject debate , has been criticized several scholars. within year of caporael s article, historians spanos , gottlieb argued against idea in same journal. in spanos , gottlieb s rebuttal caporael s article, concluded there several flaws in explanation. example, argued that, if food supply contaminated, symptoms have occurred household, not individual. however, historian leon harrier said if supplies cooked, residents suffering stomach ulcers had risk of absorbing toxin through stomach lining, offering direct route bloodstream. being similar lysergic acid diethylamide (lsd), ergot not survive in acidic environment of typical human s stomach, in cooked food. if not residents malnourished , suffering bleeding stomach ulcers, affected ingesting contaminated grains, leaving majority unaffected, explaining why ergotism not recognized. harrier argued numbers have been larger, possibly including entire town, due trials on bewitchment , heresy, , fear of being accused , subsequently executed, few come forward while suffering legitimate medical conditions.

spanos , gottlieb state ergot poisoning has additional symptoms not associated events in salem, , proportion of children afflicted less in typical ergotism epidemic. anthropologist h. sidky noted ergotism had been known centuries before salem witch trials, , argued symptoms have been recognizable during time of salem witch trials.

in 2003 pointed out ergots produced different strains of claviceps purpurea, , growing in different soils, may produce different ergot alkaloid compositions. may explain different manifestations of ergotism in different outbreaks. example, alkaloid present in high concentrations in ergots europe east of rhine may have caused convulsive ergotism, while ergot west caused epidemics of gangrenous ergotism.